Towards integrating phenomenology and neurocognition: Possible neurocognitive correlates of basic self-disturbance in schizophrenia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1515/cpp-2017-0015Keywords:
schizophrenia, psychosis, phenomenology, self, neurocognitionAbstract
Phenomenological research indicates that disturbance of the basic sense of self may be a core phenotypic marker of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Basic self-disturbance refers to disruption of the sense of ownership of experience and agency of action and is associated with a variety of anomalous subjective experiences. Little is known about the neurocognitive correlates of basic self-disturbance. In this paper, we review recent phenomenological and neurocognitive research and point to a convergence of these approaches around the concept of self-disturbance. Specifically, we propose that subjective anomalies associated with basic self-disturbance may be associated with: 1. source monitoring deficits, which may contribute particularly to disturbances of “ownership” and “mineness” (the phenomenological notion of presence) and 2. aberrant salience, and associated disturbances of memory, prediction, and attention processes, which may contribute to hyper-reflexivity, disturbed “grip” or “hold” on the perceptual and conceptual field, and disturbances of intuitive social understanding (“common sense”). These two streams of research are reviewed in turn before considering ways forward in integrative models, particularly regarding the role of early neurodevelopmental disturbances, primary versus secondary disturbances, and the state versus trait nature of such pathology. Empirical studies are required in a variety of populations in order to test the proposed associations between phenomenological and neurocognitive aspects of self-disturbance in schizophrenia. An integration of findings across the phenomenological and neurocognitive domains would represent a significant advance in the understanding of schizophrenia and possibly enhance early identification and intervention strategies.
References
1. Nelson B, Whitford TJ, Lavoie S, Sass LA: What are the neurocognitive correlates of basic self-disturbance in schizophrenia?: Integrating phenomenology and neurocognition: Part 2 (aberrant salience). Schizophr Res 2014;152:20-27.
2. Nelson B, Whitford TJ, Lavoie S, Sass LA: What are the neurocognitive correlates of basic self-disturbance in schizophrenia?: Integrating phenomenology and neurocognition. Part 1 (source monitoring deficits). Schizophr Res 2014;152:12-19.
3. Borda JP, Sass LA: Phenomenology and neurobiology of self disorder in schizophrenia: Primary factors. Schizophr Res 2015;169:464-473.
4. Sass LA, Borda JP: Phenomenology and neurobiology of self disorder in schizophrenia: Secondary factors. Schizophr Res 2015;169:474-482.
5. Postmes L, Sno HN, Goedhart S, van der Stel J, Heering HD, de Haan L: Schizophrenia as a self-disorder due to perceptual incoherence. Schizophr Res 2014;152:41-50.
6. Parnas J, Handest P, Jansson L, Saebye D: Anomalous subjective experience among first-admitted schizophrenia spectrum patients: Empirical investigation.[see comment]. Psychopathology 2005;38:259-267.
7. Parnas J: Self and schizophrenia: A phenomenological perspective; in Kircher T, David A (eds): The self in neuroscience and psychiatry. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp 127-141.
8. Sass LA, Parnas J: Schizophrenia, consciousness, and the self. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2003;29:427-444.
9. Sass LA: Madness and modernism: Insanity in the light of modern art, literature, and thought. Cambridge, MA, USA, Harvard University Press, 1992. Revised edition: Oxford University Press, 2017.
10. Nelson B, Yung AR, Bechdolf A, McGorry PD: The phenomenological critique and self-disturbance: Implications for ultra-high risk ("prodrome") research. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:381-392.
11. Parnas J: The core gestalt of schizophrenia. World psychiatry: official journal of the World Psychiatric Association 2012;11:67-69.
12. Parnas J, Henriksen MG: Disordered self in the schizophrenia spectrum: A clinical and research perspective. Harvard review of psychiatry 2014;22:251-265.
13. Nelson B, Parnas J, Sass LA: Disturbance of minimal self (ipseity) in schizophrenia: Clarification and current status. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2014;40:479-482.
14. Sass LA, Parnas J: Explaining schizophrenia: The relevance of phenomenology; in Chung MC, Fulford KWM, Graham G (eds): Reconceiving schizophrenia. New York, Oxford University Press, 2007, pp 63-96.
15. Parnas J, Jansson L, Sass LA, Handest P: Self-experience in the prodromal phases of schizophrenia: A pilot study of first-admissions. Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research 1998;6:97-106.
16. Parnas J: The self and intentionality in the pre-psychotic stages of schizophrenia: A phenomenological study; in Zahavi D (ed) Exploring the self: Philosophical and psychopathological perspectives on self-experience. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000, pp 115-148.
17. Parnas J, Møller, P., Kircher, T., Thalbitzer, J., Jansson, L., Handest, P., & Zahavi, D.: Ease: Examination of anomalous self-experience. Psychopathology 2005;38:236-258.
18. Møller P, Husby R: The initial prodrome in schizophrenia: Searching for naturalistic core dimensions of experience and behavior. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2000;26:217-232.
19. Sass LA, Parnas J, Zahavi D: Phenomenological psychopathology and schizophrenia: Contemporary approaches and misunderstandings. Philosophy, Psychiatry & Psychology 2011;18:1-23.
20. Gallagher S (ed) The oxford handbook of the self, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011.
21. Zahavi D: Phenomenology of self; in Kircher T, David A (eds): The self in neuroscience and psychiatry. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp 56-75.
22. Zahavi D: Consciousness and (minimal) selfhood: Getting clearer on for-me-ness and mineness; in Kriegel U (ed) The oxford handbook of the philosophy of consciousness. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017
23. Parnas J: A disappearing heritage: The clinical core of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia bulletin 2011;37:1121-1130.
24. Merleau-Ponty M: The primacy of perception. Northern University Press, 1964.
25. Klosterkötter J, Hellmich M, Steinmeyer EM, Schultze-Lutter F: Diagnosing schizophrenia in the initial prodromal phase. Archives of General Psychiatry 2001;58:158-164.
26. Yung AR, McGorry PD: The initial prodrome in psychosis: Descriptive and qualitative aspects. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1996;30:587-599.
27. Nelson B, Raballo A: Basic self-disturbance in the schizophrenia spectrum: Taking stock and moving forward. Psychopathology 2015;48:301-309.
28. Lysaker PH, Lysaker JT: Schizophrenia and alterations in self-experience: A comparison of 6 perspectives. Schizophrenia bulletin 2010;36:331-340.
29. Nelson B, Thompson A, Chanen AM, Amminger GP, Yung AR: Is basic self-disturbance in ultra high risk for psychosis ('prodromal') patients associated with borderline personality pathology? Early Intervention in Psychiatry 2013;In press
30. Kean C: Silencing the self: Schizophrenia as a self-disturbance. Schizophrenia bulletin 2009;35:1034-1036.
31. Saks ER: The center cannot hold: My journey through madness. New York, Hyperion, 2007.
32. Sass LA, Pienkos E, Nelson B: Introspection and schizophrenia: A comparative investigation of anomalous self experiences. Consciousness and Cognition 2013;22:853-867.
33. Madeira L, Carmenates S, Costa C, Linhares L, Stanghellini G, Figueira ML, Sass L: Basic self-disturbances beyond schizophrenia: Discrepancies and affinities in panic disorder - an empirical clinical study. Psychopathology 2017;50:157-168.
34. Parnas J, Nordgaard J, Henriksen MG: Panic, self-disorder, and ease research: Methodological considerations. Psychopathology 2017;50:169-170.
35. Parnas J, Moller P, Kircher T, Thalbitzer J, Jansson L, Handest P, Zahavi D: Ease: Examination of anomalous self-experience. Psychopathology 2005;38:236-258.
36. Sass L, Pienkos E, Nelson B: Introspection and schizophrenia: A comparative investigation of anomalous self experiences. Conscious Cogn 2013;22:853-867.
37. Sass LA: The paradoxes of delusion: Wittgenstein, schreber, and the schizophrenic mind. New York, Cornell University Press, 1994.
38. Ratcliffe M, Broome M: Existential phenomenology, psychiatric illness and the death of possibilities; in Crowell S (ed) Cambridge companion to existentialism. Cambridge, 2012, pp 361-382.
39. Merleau-Ponty M: The phenomenology of perception. London, Routledge, 1962.
40. Sass LA, Byrom G: Self-disturbance and the bizarre: On incomprehensibility in schizophrenic delusions. Psychopathology 2015;48:293-300.
41. Sass L, Byrom G: Phenomenological and neurocognitive perspectives on delusions: A critical overview. World Psychiatry 2015;14:164-173.
42. Maj M: The self and schizophrenia: Some open issues. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association 2012;11:65-66.
43. Haug E, Oie M, Melle I, Andreassen OA, Raballo A, Bratlien U, Lien L, Moller P: The association between self-disorders and neurocognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia research 2012;135:79-83.
44. Nordgaard J, Revsbech R, Henriksen MG: Self-disorders, neurocognition and rationality in schizophrenia: A preliminary study. Psychopathology 2015;48:310-316.
45. Comparelli A, Corigliano V, De Carolis A, Pucci D, Angelone M, Di Pietro S, Kotzalidis GD, Terzariol L, Manni L, Trisolini A, Girardi P: Anomalous self-experiences and their relationship with symptoms, neuro-cognition, and functioning in at-risk adolescents and young adults. Compr Psychiatry 2016;65:44-49.
46. Schultze-Lutter F, Ruhrmann S, Picker H, von Reventlow HG, Daumann B, Brockhaus-Dumke A, Klosterkkotter J, Pukrop R: Relationship between subjective and objective cognitive function in the early and late prodrome. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 2007;51:s43-51.
47. Zanello A, Huguelet P: Relationship between subjective cognitive symptoms and frontal executive abilities in chronic schizophrenic outpatients. Psychopathology 2001;34:153-158.
48. Keefe RS, Kraus MS, Krishnan RR: Failures in learning-dependent predictive perception as the key cognitive vulnerability to psychosis in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:367-368.
49. Keefe RS, Bilder RM, Harvey PD, Davis SM, Palmer BW, Gold JM, Meltzer HY, Green MF, Miller DD, Canive JM, Adler LW, Manschreck TC, Swartz M, Rosenheck R, Perkins DO, Walker TM, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA: Baseline neurocognitive deficits in the catie schizophrenia trial. Neuropsychopharmacology: official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2006;31:2033-2046.
50. Heinrichs RW: In search of madness: Schizophrenia and neuroscience. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001.
51. Lin A, Yung AR, Nelson B, Brewer WJ, Riley R, Simmons MB, Pantelis C, Wood SJ: Neurocognitive predictors of transition to psychosis: Medium to long-term findings from a sample at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Psychological Medicine 2013;In press
52. Frith CD: The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Hove, Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992.
53. Frith CD, Done DJ: Towards a neuropsychology of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1988;153:437-443.
54. Gray JA: Integrating schizophrenia. Schizophrenia bulletin 1998;24:249-266.
55. Gray JA, Feldon J, Rawlins JNP, Hemsley DR, Smith AD: The neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1991;14:1-20.
56. Gray NS, Snowden RJ: The relevance of irrelevance to schizophrenia. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews 2005;29:989-999.
57. Hemsley DR: Cognitive abnormalities and schizophrenic symptoms. Psychological medicine 1992;22:839-842.
58. Hemsley DR: The disruption of the 'sense of self' in schizophrenia: Potential links with disturbances of information processing. Br J Med Psychol 1998;71 (Pt 2):115-124.
59. Hemsley DR: The development of a cognitive model of schizophrenia: Placing it in context. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2005;29:977-988.
60. Hemsley DR: The schizophrenic experience: Taken out of context? Schizophrenia bulletin 2005;31:43-53.
61. Keefe RS, Arnold MC, Bayen UJ, Harvey PD: Source monitoring deficits in patients with schizophrenia; a multinomial modelling analysis. Psychol Med 1999;29:903-914.
62. Fletcher PC, Frith CD: Perceiving is believing: A bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009;10:48-58.
63. Feinberg I: Efference copy and corollary discharge: Implications for thinking and its disorders. Schizophrenia bulletin 1978;4:636-640.
64. Frith C: Explaining delusions of control: The comparator model 20 years on. Consciousness and cognition 2012;21:52-54.
65. Stephan KE, Friston KJ, Frith CD: Dysconnection in schizophrenia: From abnormal synaptic plasticity to failures of self-monitoring. Schizophrenia bulletin 2009;35:509-527.
66. Crapse TB, Sommer MA: Corollary discharge across the animal kingdom. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9:587-600.
67. Poulet JF, Hedwig B: New insights into corollary discharges mediated by identified neural pathways. Trends Neurosci 2007;30:14-21.
68. Blakemore S-J, Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone EC, Frith CD: The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: Evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring. Psychological Medicine 2000;30:1131-1139.
69. Ford JM, Mathalon DH, Whitfield S, Faustman WO, Roth WT: Reduced communication between frontal and temporal lobes during talking in schizophrenia. Biological psychiatry 2002;51:485-492.
70. Ford JM, Gray M, Faustman WO, Heinks TH, Mathalon DH: Reduced gamma-band coherence to distorted feedback during speech when what you say is not what you hear. Int J Psychophysiol 2005;57:143-150.
71. Ford JM, Roach BJ, Faustman WO, Mathalon DH: Out-of-synch and out-of-sorts: Dysfunction of motor-sensory communication in schizophrenia. Biological psychiatry 2008;63:736-743.
72. Lawrie SM, Buechel C, Whalley HC, Frith CD, Friston KJ, Johnstone EC: Reduced frontotemporal functional connectivity in schizophrenia associated with auditory hallucinations. Biological psychiatry 2002;51:1008-1011.
73. Fletcher PC, Frith CD, Grasby PM, Friston KJ, Dolan RJ: Local and distributed effects of apomorphine on fronto-temporal function in acute unmedicated schizophrenia. J Neurosci 1996;16:7055-7062.
74. Fletcher PC, McKenna PJ, Frith CD, Grasby PM, Friston KJ, Dolan RJ: Brain activations in schizophrenia during a graded memory task studied with functional neuroimaging. Archives of general psychiatry 1998;55:1001-1008.
75. Ford JM, Mathalon DH, Roach BJ, Keedy SK, Reilly JL, Gershon ES, Sweeney JA: Neurophysiological evidence of corollary discharge function during vocalization in psychotic patients and their nonpsychotic first-degree relatives. Schizophrenia bulletin 2012;In press
76. Ford JM, Gray M, Faustman WO, Roach BJ, Mathalon DH: Dissecting corollary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychophysiology 2007;44:522-529.
77. Whitford TJ, Mathalon DH, Shenton ME, Roach BJ, Bammer R, Adcock RA, Bouix S, Kubicki M, De Siebenthal J, Rausch AC, Schneiderman JS, Ford JM: Electrophysiological and diffusion tensor imaging evidence of delayed corollary discharges in patients with schizophrenia. Psychological medicine 2011;41:959-969.
78. Wilquin H, Delevoye-Turrell Y: Motor agency: A new and highly sensitive measure to reveal agency disturbances in early psychosis. PLoS One 2012;7:e30449.
79. Carhart-Harris RL, Leech R, Erritzoe D, Williams TM, Stone JM, Evans J, Sharp DJ, Feilding A, Wise RG, Nutt DJ: Functional connectivity measures after psilocybin inform a novel hypothesis of early psychosis. Schizophrenia bulletin 2012;In press
80. Taylor JG: A neural model of the loss of self in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia bulletin 2011;37:1229-1247.
81. Parnas J, Møller P, Kircher T, Thalbitzer J, Jansson L, Handest P, Zahavi D: Ease: Examination of anomalous self-experience. Psychopathology 2005;38:236-258.
82. Kapur S: Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:13-23.
83. Kapur S, Mizrahi R, Li M: From dopamine to salience to psychosis--linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophr Res 2005;79:59-68.
84. Keefe RS, Kraus MS: Measuring memory-prediction errors and their consequences in youth at risk for schizophrenia. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2009;38:414-416.
85. Kraus MS, Keefe RS, Krishnan RK: Memory-prediction errors and their consequences in schizophrenia. Neuropsychol Rev 2009;19:336-352.
86. Todd J, Michie PT, Schall U, Ward PB, Catts SV: Mismatch negativity (mmn) reduction in schizophrenia-impaired prediction--error generation, estimation or salience? Int J Psychophysiol 2012;83:222-231.
87. Gray NS, Hemsley DR, Gray JA: Abolition of latent inhibition in acute, but not chronic, schizophrenics. Neurology, Psychiatry, and Brain Research 1992;1:83-89.
88. Lubow RE, Gewirtz JC: Latent inhibition in humans: Data, theory, and implications for schizophrenia. Psychol Bull 1995;117:87-103.
89. Corlett PR, Honey GD, Fletcher PC: From prediction error to psychosis: Ketamine as a pharmacological model of delusions. J Psychopharmacol 2007;21:238-252.
90. Corlett PR, Honey GD, Aitken MR, Dickinson A, Shanks DR, Absalom AR, Lee M, Pomarol-Clotet E, Murray GK, McKenna PJ, Robbins TW, Bullmore ET, Fletcher PC: Frontal responses during learning predict vulnerability to the psychotogenic effects of ketamine: Linking cognition, brain activity, and psychosis. Archives of general psychiatry 2006;63:611-621.
91. Hemsley DR: An experimental psychological model for schizophrenia; in Hafner H, Gattaz W, Janzarik W (eds): Search for the causes of schizophrenia. Berlin and Heidelberg, Springer, 1987, pp 179-188.
92. Polyakov UF: The experimental investigation of cognitive functioning in schizophrenia; in Cole M, Maltzman I (eds): A handbook of contemporary soviet psychology. New York and London, Basic Books, 1969
93. Sass LA: Self and world in schizophrenia: Three classic approaches. Philosophy, Psychiatry & Psychology 2001;8:251-270.
94. Blankenburg W: First steps toward a psychopathology of "common sense". Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology 2001;8:303-315.
95. Harrison PJ: The neuropathology of schizophrenia: A critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain 1999;122:593-624.
96. Pantelis C, Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, Wood SJ, Suckling J, Phillips LJ, Yung AR, Bullmore ET, Brewer W, Soulsby B, Desmond P, McGuire PK: Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: A cross-sectional and longitudinal mri comparison. Lancet 2003;361:281-288.
97. Thaker GK, Ross DE, Cassady SL, Adami HM, LaPorte D, Medoff DR, Lahti A: Smooth pursuit eye movements to extraretinal motion signals: Deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Archives of general psychiatry 1998;55:830-836.
98. Thaker GK, Ross DE, Buchanan RW, Adami HM, Medoff DR: Smooth pursuit eye movements to extra-retinal motion signals: Deficits in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry research 1999;88:209-219.
99. Hong LE, Turano KA, O'Neill H, Hao L, Wonodi I, McMahon RP, Elliott A, Thaker GK: Refining the predictive pursuit endophenotype in schizophrenia. Biological psychiatry 2008;63:458-464.
100. Hong LE, Avila MT, Thaker GK: Response to unexpected target changes during sustained visual tracking in schizophrenic patients. Exp Brain Res 2005;165:125-131.
101. Morris R, Griffiths O, Le Pelley ME, Weickert TW: Attention to irrelevant cues is related to positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia bulletin 2012;39:575-582.
102. Hoffman RE, Woods SW, Hawkins KA, Pittman B, Tohen M, Preda A, Breier A, Glist J, Addington J, Perkins DO, McGlashan TH: Extracting spurious messages from noise and risk of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders in a prodromal population. The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science 2007;191:355-356.
103. Doniger GM, Silipo G, Rabinowicz EF, Snodgrass JG, Javitt DC: Impaired sensory processing as a basis for object-recognition deficits in schizophrenia. The American journal of psychiatry 2001;158:1818-1826.
104. Cavezian C, Rossetti Y, Danckert J, d'Amato T, Dalery J, Saoud M: Exaggerated leftward bias in the mental number line of patients with schizophrenia. Brain Cogn 2007;63:85-90.
105. Newby D: 'Cloze' procedure refined and modified: 'Modified cloze', 'reverse cloze' and the use of predictability as a measure of communication problems in psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 1998;172:136-141.
106. Whittaker JF, Deakin JF, Tomenson B: Face processing in schizophrenia: Defining the deficit. Psychological medicine 2001;31:499-507.
107. Benton AL, Van Allen MW: Prosopagnosia and facial discrimination. J Neurol Sci 1972;15:167-172.
108. Emrich HM: A three-component-system hypothesis of psychosis. Impairment of binocular depth inversion as an indicator of a functional dysequilibrium. The British journal of psychiatry Supplement 1989:37-39.
109. Schneider U, Borsutzky M, Seifert J, Leweke FM, Huber TJ, Rollnik JD, Emrich HM: Reduced binocular depth inversion in schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia research 2002;53:101-108.
110. Owen GS, Cutting J, David AS: Are people with schizophrenia more logical than healthy volunteers? Br J Psychiatry 2007;191:453-454.
111. Uhlhaas PJ, Silverstein SM: Perceptual organization in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: Empirical research and theoretical implications. Psychol Bull 2005;131:618-632.
112. Uhlhaas PJ, Phillips WA, Silverstein SM: The course and clinical correlates of dysfunctions in visual perceptual organization in schizophrenia during the remission of psychotic symptoms. Schizophrenia research 2005;75:183-192.
113. Uhlhaas PJ, Phillips WA, Schenkel LS, Silverstein SM: Theory of mind and perceptual context-processing in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2006;11:416-436.
114. Pearl D, Yodashkin-Porat D, Katz N, Valevski A, Aizenberg D, Sigler M, Weizman A, Kikinzon L: Differences in audiovisual integration, as measured by mcgurk phenomenon, among adult and adolescent patients with schizophrenia and age-matched healthy control groups. Compr Psychiat 2009;50:186-192.
115. Naatanen R, Kujala T, Winkler I: Auditory processing that leads to conscious perception: A unique window to central auditory processing opened by the mismatch negativity and related responses. Psychophysiology 2011;48:4-22.
116. Naatanen R, Kahkonen S: Central auditory dysfunction in schizophrenia as revealed by the mismatch negativity (mmn) and its magnetic equivalent mmnm: A review. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology/official scientific journal of the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum 2009;12:125-135.
117. Umbricht D, Krljes S: Mismatch negativity in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia research 2005;76:1-23.
118. Oranje B, Aggernaes B, Rasmussen H, Ebdrup BH, Glenthoj BY: Selective attention and mismatch negativity in antipsychotic-naive, first-episode schizophrenia patients before and after 6 months of antipsychotic monotherapy. Psychol Med 2017:1-11.
119. Bodatsch M, Ruhrmann S, Wagner M, Muller R, Schultze-Lutter F, Frommann I, Brinkmeyer J, Gaebel W, Maier W, Klosterkotter J, Brockhaus-Dumke A: Prediction of psychosis by mismatch negativity. Biological psychiatry 2011;69:959-966.
120. Light GA, Braff DL: Mismatch negativity deficits are associated with poor functioning in schizophrenia patients. Archives of general psychiatry 2005;62:127-136.
121. Henriksen MG, Parnas J: Clinical manifestations of self-disorders and the gestalt of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2012;38:657-660.
122. Rasser PE, Schall U, Todd J, Michie PT, Ward PB, Johnston P, Helmbold K, Case V, Soyland A, Tooney PA, Thompson PM: Gray matter deficits, mismatch negativity, and outcomes in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia bulletin 2011;37:131-140.
123. Wynn JK, Sugar C, Horan WP, Kern R, Green MF: Mismatch negativity, social cognition, and functioning in schizophrenia patients. Biological psychiatry 2010;67:940-947.
124. Peterson JB, Smith KW, Carson S: Openness and extraversion are associated with reduced latent inhibition: Replication and commentary. Personality and Individual Differences 2002;33:1137-1147.
125. Allan LM, Williams JH, Wellman NA, Tonin J, Taylor E, Rawlins JNP, Feldon J: Effects of tobacco smoking, schizotypy and number of pre-exposures on latent inhibition in healthy subjects. Personality and Individual Differences 1995;19:893-902.
126. Baruch I, Hemsley DR, Gray JA: Latent inhibition and “psychotic proneness” in normal subjects. Personality and Individual Differences 1988;9:777-783.
127. Lubow RE, Ingberg-Sachs Y, Zalstein-Orda N, Gewirtz JC: Latent inhibition in low and high “psychotic-prone” normal subjects. Personality and Individual Differences 1992;13:563-572.
128. Braunstein-Bercovitz H, Rammsayer T, Gibbons H, Lubow RE: Latent inhibition deficits in high-schizotypal normals: Symptom-specific or anxiety-related? Schizophrenia research 2002;53:109-121.
129. Baruch I, Hemsley DR, Gray JA: Differential performance of acute and chronic schizophrenics in a latent inhibition task. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1988;176:598-606.
130. Bramon E, Rabe-Hesketh S, Sham P, Murray RM, Frangou S: Meta-analysis of the p300 and p50 waveforms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia research 2004;70:315-329.
131. Patterson JV, Hetrick WP, Boutros NN, Jin Y, Sandman C, Stern H, Potkin S, Bunney WE, Jr.: P50 sensory gating ratios in schizophrenics and controls: A review and data analysis. Psychiatry research 2008;158:226-247.
132. Nelson B, Sass LA: Medusa’s stare: A case study of working with self-disturbance in the early phase of schizophrenia. Clinical Case Studies 2009;8:489-504.
133. McGhie A, Chapman J: Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia. British Journal of Medical Psychology 1961;34:103-115.
134. Gross G, Huber G, Klosterkotter J: Bonn scale for the assessment of basic symptoms - bsabs. Berlin, Springer, 1987.
135. Blankenburg W: [approach to the psychopathology of common sense]. Confinia Psychiatrica 1969;12:144-163.
136. Bovet P, Parnas J: Schizophrenic delusions: A phenomenological approach. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:579-597.
137. Stanghellini G: Disembodied spirits and deanimated bodies: The psychopathology of common sense. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, 2004.
138. Stanghellini G, Lysaker PH: The psychotherapy of schizophrenia through the lens of phenomenology: Intersubjectivity and the search for the recovery of first- and second-person awareness. Am J Psychother 2007;61:163-179.
139. Green MF, Olivier B, Crawley JN, Penn DL, Silverstein S: Social cognition in schizophrenia: Recommendations from the measurement and treatment research to improve cognition in schizophrenia new approaches conference. Schizophrenia bulletin 2005;31:882-887.
140. Penn DL, Sanna LJ, Roberts DL: Social cognition in schizophrenia: An overview. Schizophrenia bulletin 2008;34:408-411.
141. Rhodes J, Gipps RGT: Delusions, certainty, and the background. Philosophy, Psychiatry & Psychology 2008;15:295-310.
142. Gibson JJ: The theory of affordances; in Shaw R, Bransford J (eds): Perceiving, acting, and knowing: Toward an ecological psychology Hillside, NJ, Erlbaum, 1977, pp 67-82.
143. Gibson JJ: The theory of information pickup and its consequences; in Yantis S (ed) Visual perception: Essential readings. New York, Psychology Press, 2001, pp 84-100.
144. Spinelli E: The interpreted world: An introduction to phenomenological psychology. London, Sage, 1989.
145. Nelson B, Sass LA: The phenomenology of the psychotic break and huxley’s trip: Substance use and the onset of psychosis. Psychopathology 2008;41:346-355.
146. Sartre J-P: Nausea. New York, New Directions, 1964.
147. Nelson B, Rawlings D: Relating schizotypy and personality to the phenomenology of creativity. Schizophr Bull 2008;36:388-399.
148. Howes OD, Kapur S: The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: Version iii--the final common pathway. Schizophr Bull 2009;35:549-562.
149. Cannon TD: How schizophrenia develops: Cognitive and brain mechanisms underlying onset of psychosis. Trends Cogn Sci 2015
150. Nelson B: Varieties of self-disturbance: A prism through which to view mental disorder. Early Intervention in Psychiatry 2013;7:231-234.
151. Nelson B, Fornito A, Harrison BJ, Yucel M, Sass LA, Yung AR, Thompson A, Wood SJ, Pantelis C, McGorry PD: A disturbed sense of self in the psychosis prodrome: Linking phenomenology and neurobiology. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009;33:807-817.
152. Kean C: Battling with the life instinct: The paradox of the self and suicidal behavior in psychosis. Schizophrenia bulletin 2011;37:4-7.
153. McClure SM, Daw ND, Montague PR: A computational substrate for incentive salience. Trends Neurosci 2003;26:423-428.
154. Gamma F, Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Fitzmaurice GM, Tsuang MT, Buka SL: Early intermodal integration in offspring of parents with psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2013
155. Parnas J, Bovet P, Innocenti GM: Schizophrenic trait features, binding, and cortico-cortical connectivity: A neurodevelopmental pathogenetic hypothesis. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research 1996;4:185-196.
156. Sass LA: Madness and modernism: Insanity in the light of modern art, literature, and thought—revised edition. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, 2017.
157. Sass LA: Self-disturbance and schizophrenia: Structure, specificity, pathogenesis (current issues, new directions). Schizophr Res 2014;152:5-11.
158. Bendall S, Jackson HJ, Hulbert CA, McGorry PD: Childhood trauma and psychotic disorders: A systematic, critical review of the evidence. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:568-579.
159. Selten JP, van der Ven E, Rutten BP, Cantor-Graae E: The social defeat hypothesis of schizophrenia: An update. Schizophr Bull 2013;39:1180-1186.
160. Renard SB, Huntjens RJ, Lysaker PH, Moskowitz A, Aleman A, Pijnenborg GH: Unique and overlapping symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum and dissociative disorders in relation to models of psychopathology: A systematic review. Schizophr Bull 2017;43:108-121.
161. Kilcommons AM, Morrison AP: Relationships between trauma and psychosis: An exploration of cognitive and dissociative factors. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005;112:351-359.
162. Myin-Germeys I, van Os J: Stress-reactivity in psychosis: Evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clinical psychology review 2007;27:409-424.
163. Keane BP, Silverstein SM, Wang Y, Papathomas TV: Reduced depth inversion illusions in schizophrenia are state-specific and occur for multiple object types and viewing conditions. J Abnorm Psychol 2013;122:506-512.
164. Silverstein SM, Keane BP: Perceptual organization impairment in schizophrenia and associated brain mechanisms: Review of research from 2005 to 2010. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:690-699.
165. Breakspear M, Terry JR, Friston KJ, Harris AW, Williams LM, Brown K, Brennan J, Gordon E: A disturbance of nonlinear interdependence in scalp eeg of subjects with first episode schizophrenia. NeuroImage 2003;20:466-478.
166. Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Thermenos HW, Milanovic S, Tsuang MT, Faraone SV, McCarley RW, Shenton ME, Green AI, Nieto-Castanon A, LaViolette P, Wojcik J, Gabrieli JD, Seidman LJ: Hyperactivity and hyperconnectivity of the default network in schizophrenia and in first-degree relatives of persons with schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:1279-1284.
167. Northoff G, Qin P: How can the brain's resting state activity generate hallucinations? A 'resting state hypothesis' of auditory verbal hallucinations. Schizophrenia research 2011;127:202-214.
168. Keefe RSE: The neurobiology of disturbances of the self: Autonoetic agnosia in schizophrenia.; in Amador XF, David AS (eds): Insight and psychosis. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp 142-173.
169. Graham-Schmidt KT, Martin-Iverson MT, Waters FAV: Self- and other-agency in people with passivity (first rank) symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2017
170. Parnas J, Handest P: Phenomenology of anomalous self-experience in early schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 2003;44:121-134.
171. Naatanen R, Kujala T, Kreegipuu K, Carlson S, Escera C, Baldeweg T, Ponton C: The mismatch negativity: An index of cognitive decline in neuropsychiatric and neurological diseases and in ageing. Brain : a journal of neurology 2011;134:3435-3453.
172. Waters FA, Maybery MT, Badcock JC, Michie PT: Context memory and binding in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2004;68:119-125.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.
